includes a more full version of bio notes with plant stuff
also has climate change notes
Science Exam Study Notes
Biology
Plant and Animal Cells
Prokaryotes: No nucleus or other membrane
Eukaryotes: has a nucleus and other organelles
Plant cells have cell wall and chloroplast while animals cells don’t
Organelles
Cytoplasm: suspends organelles in cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum: transports materials throughout the cell
Nucleus: stores genetic data and performing mitosis
Mitochondria: converts glucose with oxygen to make energy for cell
Cell membrane: support cell and allow diffusion
Chloroplast: absorbs light and converts it to energy
Golgi Bodies: collects and removes materials from cell
Vacuoles: isolating and removing waste in cell and maintaining pressure
Mitosis: IPMAT
Chromatid: 2 identical strands of DNA that make up the chromosome
Centromere: structure that holds the chromatid together as chromosomes
Importance of cell division, as the cell gets bigger, the ratio of surface area and volume decreases, meaning the cell will not be able to have enough space to absorb all the nutrients to go into and support the cell’s organelles and functions
Cancer: caused by mutation in cells
Carcinogens: factors that increase the risk of cancer
Benign: tumor that is not harmful
Malignant: tumor that is harmful
Ways of detecting: pap, psa, breast self exam
Treatment: Chemo, Radio, surgery
Stem Cells: Cells that are able to divide into any type of cell by turning on some of the DNA to allow some functions
Umbilical cord excellent source for stem cells that can only make blood (specialized stem cells)
cells>tissues>organs>organ systems
Organ: obtain O2, get nutrients, make waste, adapt, repair, grow, change
Tissues
Epithelial: skin, lining of digestive system
-thinly packed cells
Connective: bone, tendons, blood
-various cells and fibres held together by a single organ
Muscle: muscles, heart, digestive muscles
-expand and contract on demand to create movement
Nervous: brain, nervous system
-long thing cells that convey electric currents to control body
Digestive System
Digestive Tract: mouth>esophagus>S intestines>L intestines>rectum>anus
-covered in epithelial tissues for smoothness
Goblet cells: produce mucus to protect from acids
Mouth: breaks down food
Esophagus: travels down through smooth muscles: peristalsis
Stomach: churns food with enzymes to digest food
Small intestine: smooth muscles bring nutrients into blood vessels
Big Intestine: food left to dry
Liver: produces enzymes for digestion
-Gall bladder: produces bile to kill fat
Pancreas: produces insulin to control blood sugars
Circulatory System
Blood, Heart, Blood vessels
-move nutrients, move oxygen, carry waste, temperature, wbc movement
Blood
RBC: Erythrocytes: 50% of blood
-contains hemoglobin that transports oxygen throughout body. from marrow
WBC: less than 1%, fights infections by S&D methods
-Destroys or asks antibodies to attack them
Platelets: keeps blood from clotting. Ruptures to heal
Plasma: 50% of blood, protein rich fluid to carry cells.
Heart: responsible for pumping blood around body
Cardiac Muscle: only in heart that moves at the same time
Nerve Tissue: controls beating frequency
Connective Tissue: protect heart from friction, collision. made of epithelial tissue
Blood Vessels
Arteries: carries blood under high pressure with thick walls
Veins: carries blood under low pressure in thin walls. Valves are used to suspend blood
Capillaries: cell size width, carries oxygen and diffusion at this level
Diseases
Coronary Artery Disease, Heart Attack
Respiratory System
Gas Exchange: gas is transferred through diffusion into blood through capillaries.
Diseases: Tuberculosis: bacteria infection
-Cancer: tumor in lung blocking air flow
Musculoskeletal System: supports body and movement, protection
Bone: hard dense matrix of Ca, P, and collagen protein. Marrow inside to make blood
Ligament: bonds bone to bone. Soft elastic collagen
Cartilage: provides lubrication between disks
Muscle: cells contract in long fibers to provide movement.
-Skeletal muscle: voluntary movement
-smooth muscle: involuntary movement
Tendons; bone to muscle, less elastic.
Diseases: Osteoprorosis: loss of Ca in bone, making fragile
-Accidents
Nerve System
Nerve cells
Dedicated network to allow messages to pass through and enable interactions
Central nervous system: nerve, brain, spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous SystemL nerves that carry the signal throughout the body
Neurons: cells which conduct messages using electric currents
Disease: Multiple Sclerosis: mylin sheath falling off
-Physical trama
Plants
-Green ourside
-Exchanges gases
-Require internal nutrient transportation
Heirarchy: root and shoot system
Dermal Tissue: outer surfaces
Vascule tissue: transportation
Ground tissue: all others
Shoot system: conducts photosynthesis and produces flowers
Root System: segment that primarily grows underground
Light energy+CO2+water -> glucose+oxygen through chlorophyll
Energy is stored as starch, less soluable in water. It is the converted back to glucose for consumption
Leaves: support, attraction, reproduction
Meristematic Cells: undifferentiated cells for plants
Epidermal tissue: flat tissues on the outer surface of plants
Periderm tissues: tissues on surface of barks
Apical Meristems: stem cells at the tops of the plant to allow it to grow taller
Lateral meristems: steps at the side of the bark areas to make the plant grow wider
Water>root hairs>xylem in roots> stem> petiole> xylem of leaf> spongy mesphyll or palisade> chloroplast
Chemistry
Properties of Metal: Metallic, conductive, malleable, solid
Properties of non metals: solid, gas, or liquid, brittle, dull, insulators
Alkali Metals: most reactive
Alkali Earth Metals: second most reactive
Halogens: most reactive non metal
Noble Gases: least reactive
All based on number of valence electrons
Ions: charged particle that looses or gains electrons to have a full outer orbital
Ionic compounds: having 2 elements come in to make full outer orbital for all by transferring electrons. conduct electricity when dissolved in water
Ionic bond: attraction of 2 elements with positive and negative charges
Naming
Metal followed by non metal with “ide” ending
Transitional metals: have 2 or more charges
Transitional metals will have to add (XX) to indicate charge
Criss cross method for formulas
Polyatomic Compounds: ion made up of one or more elements
Naming
-Write the name of the cation, then ide after the anion
-criss cross method to determine charges
Molecular/Covalent compounds: compounds through sharing electrons. Some always come in a pair
-HOBBrINCl
Naming
uses a set of common molecular names
second term/first that is more than one will use prefix system
no charges needs to be indicated
Reactants and products
Single Displacement: one element replaces another, leaving one alone
A+BC -> AC+B
Decomposition: single compound breaks down into another element/compounds
AB-> A+B
Synthesis: opposite of decomp
A+B-> AB
Double displacement: both elements are replaced by another
AB+CD -> AD+CB
Combustion: rapid reaction with oxygen to create oxides
Fuel+oxygen->carbon dioxide+ water
Incomplete combusion
Fuel+oxygen->carbon dioxide+water+carbon+carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons- fossil fuel like gas/coal
Oxidization: reaction slow between oxygen to make an oxide
Law of conservational mass
-The mass of the reactant must equal to the mass of the product. We will use coefficients and multipliers to balance the equations.
Corrosion: bad: car rusting, Good: rusting aluminum
Acids: neutralizes bases
conducts electricity
reacts with metals to create H^2
reacts with carbonates to create CO2
reacts with water to create hydrogen
All acids have “hydro in front: hydrofluiric,
Conducts electricity
Sour
Oxyacids derive from polyatomic acids containing oxygen and hydrogen. Add -ate on it
Turns blue litmust paper pink, leaves pink litmus paper pink
Bases: neutralizes bases
When dissolved in water, gives off OH ion
turns red lp blue and keeps blue lp blue
conducts electricity
pH: level of how acetic or basic a solution is based on how much “power of hydrogen”
Acids ranges from 0-7 while bases go from 7-14
Neutralization Reactions: Base+acid will equal to a salt and a water
Physics
Light travels in waves and particles
Electromagnetic spectrum
Laws of reflection
- the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
- the incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal are all on the same plane
Diffused reflection: when rays are reflected over the place and no solid image is seen
Specular reflection: when all light is reflected back at the same angle and an image
Real images: images that can be seen without an optical device and can be projected
Virtual images: images that require an optical device to view
Images in plane mirrors: example diagram
SALT:
Size: larger, smaller, same
Attitude: upright, inverted
Location: distance between mirror/object
Type: real/virtual
Curved mirrors:
Principal axis: horizontal coming out of the vertex
Focus: point at which the image can be scene clearly
Concave mirrors rules:
- light rays parallel to the principal axis will reflect through F
- light rays moving in the direction of F will reflect parallel
- a light ray going through C will reflect back
- a light ray going through V follows laws of reflection
Convex mirrors
- horizontal will go through focus
- going to focus will go up and from focus
- going through C will go back on itself
Refraction: when light slows down as it travels to a denser medium which makes it bend
Rules for refraction: as it travels to a denser medium, it goes nearer to the normal, as it travels to a less dense medium, it goes farther from normal.
Partial reflection: when only some of the light is reflected/refracted and the rest goes back
Index of refraction equation
n=c/v speed of light is 3*10^8
total internal refraction: when light is reflected inwards rather than refracting out
- light travels slower in the first medium than second
- the angle of incidence is large enough so that no refraction occurs in the medium, instead, the ray is reflected back into the first one
Lenses
Converging lenses/convex lenses
Locate images based on rules
- light going through F will refract horizontally
- light going horizontal will refract towards the F
- light travelling optical center will go straight
- light going through F’ will go horizontal
Diverging lenses/concave lenses
- going through optical center will go straight
- light going towards F will go straight
- light going parallel will head up from the direction of F
Example of locating images
Equations
Do- distance of object
Di- distance of image
Ho- height of object
Hi-height of image
F-Focus
Sign conventions:
Di negative if virtual, positive if real
Hi positive if upright, negative if down
Ho positive if upright, negative if down
F positive if converting, negative if down
Human Eye
Lens: changes shape to adjust the focus point of the image in relation to the object distance
Cornea: outer most layer of the eye
Pupil: adjusts amount of light going in
Retina: light sensitive area on the back of the eye
Accommodation: changing the shape of the lens to allow the image to focus sharply on the retina.
Normal sighted diagram
Hyperopia Diagram (far sighted) - corrected using converging lens
-able to see far, the image if far will focus correctly, near, it wont. The eyeball too small
Presbyopia
-lens unable to adjust its focus. The person will see far, but not close
Myopia (close sightedness) - corrected using diverging lens
-able to see close, eyeball too long.
Climate Change
Weather: the day to day differences of temperature, precipitation, wind speed, humidity
Climate: measure of the usual patterns over a longer period of time and avg the results
Sun emits energy to the earth, 20% reflected by clouds, 6% by atmosphere and 4% by earth’s surface (rest is absorbed)
Infrared rays, UV, visible light, Xrays, Gamma rays (UV, G, and X are ionizing and filter)
Energy used to warm earth, but 100% of it is emitted back so that the temp remains the same
Climate Zones; regions with similar climate patters of precipitation and temps
Ecosystems: classify more than just climate zones with data on landforms, soil, vegetation, and human factors
Earth tilt at 23.5 degrees. sufficient to create an imbalance of light rays per area at different parts of the earth; resulting in seasons and daylight.
Earth’s Climate System:
Lithosphere: land and ground
Biosphere: living things
Hydrosphere: water
Atmosphere: air
Air circulates in the form of wind which carries moisture or dryness
Water circulates in the form of currents, which affects air above to be dry or warm
Air and water moistures and temps can affect land around it
convection: energy moves from place to place due to changes in density
Atmosphere: layers of air surrounding earth
diagram
Trosophere>stratosphere, mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exosphere
20>50> 85> 690>10000
20>30>35>690>300
Ozone protects us from harmful rays in stratusphere, but mixes with greenhouse gases to make smog in trososphere
Hydrosphere: water cycle diagram
Greenhouse effect: traps heat in to maintain warmth
Gases in atmosphere affects how the heat is maintained
Gases like 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon, methane and other gases contribute to these effects
Carbon cycle: movement of carbon from different climate systems of earth
-Point is, the stuff will still stay back on earth regardless
Carbon Cycle diagrams
Water vapour (67% of gh effect)
Warm air can hold more water than cold air
thus, warm air has potential to move moisture and precipitation
Methane: absorbs 23x more energy than CO2
Nitrous Oxide: 300x more effective than CO2 as a GH gas
Feedback loops: creates an effect that impacts its original cause
Albedo Effect: loop linking the ice on earth and gradual temperature increase
Positive: effect increases the original cause, negative opposite
Climate change
-changing by human causes as well as historically driven natural events
- rising global temperatures highest ever
- melting ice sheets, glaciers, and sea ice
- increases sea level if ice sheets melt. ice already in water wont increase level
- increase in sea level
- natural thermal expansion, groundwater loss, or icesheets more than thought
- Severe changes in weather
- hurricanes, droughts, heatwaves more frequent due to changes in temperature in oceans and air. # of severe hurricanes 2x in last 40 years
- Changes in precipitation patterns
- N H, more rain less snow
- S H, less rain
6) changes in seasons
1) shorter winters and longer growing season
- changes in ecosystems
- flowers grow earlier in season
- animals have sex sooner
- living things migrating to northern regions
Canadian Greenhouse gases
- Production of energy
- transportation
- fugitive emissions: production and refining of fossil fuels
- Agriculture: animals, machinery
- waste management: sewage, landfills
- land use and forestry: deforestation
1Megatonne = 1 billion kg
Measure of emisssion: based on CO2 and each one’s potential to do harm is based of of times of carbon dioxide
Computer modelling
-use real data to make predictions
-either very right or very wrong depending on data
- temp assuming only affected by natural causes
- temp except added anthropogenic gases
temperature increased exponentially therefore human activity is affecting our climate.
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